Secondary sources are historians' reconstructions and interpretations of the past. Most of what we know about the past comes from reading secondary sources and these sources can help to frame the questions that motivate and guide further research of primary sources. For these reasons, it is important to think critically (not necessarily in a negative sense) when reading secondary sources. The purpose of this assignment is to develop these skills.

Your Critical Paper will focus on one of the following secondary sources about the origins of the witches' sabbath from The Witchcraft Reader (ed. Darren Oldridge):

• H. C. Erik Midelfort, "Heartland of the Witchcraze," pp. 120-128
• Gustav Henningsen, "From Dream Cult to Witches' Sabbath," pp. 129-133
• Stuart Clark, "Inversion, Misrule and the Meaning of Witchcraft," pp. 143-154

Answer one of the following questions to build an argument about the persuasiveness or utility of one (or more) secondary source.

• H. C. Erik Midelfort argues that the concept of the witches' sabbath was imposed on peasant communities from above by scholars in the sixteenth century. In contrast, Gustav Henningsen suggests that the concept of the witches' sabbath came from below, from regional folk beliefs (like the Sicilian "fairy cult") which could have provided the "raw materials" for ideas about the collective practice of witchcraft. Which of these two explanations strikes you as the most persuasive? Why?

• How does Stuart Clark use the concept of "inversion" to explain the significance of beliefs in the witches' sabbath? Why does he emphasize the presence of other forms of "inversion" in medieval and early modern culture? Is his explanation more or less persuasive than Midelfort's (from above) and/or Henningsen's (from below)?

• Stuart Clark uses the concept of "inversion" to make sense of the sabbath myth. How might his argument be used to explain the gendering of witchcraft?

Your paper should have a clear and unambiguous thesis statement that answers your chosen question and presents an argument about your secondary source(s). Remember, this is a critical essay, which is an analysis of your secondary source and not simply a book report.  You will want to present your analysis of the source's explanation of the sabbath, not just a description of what those ideas are. It is also important to note that "critical" in this sense does not mean your paper must be negative. Instead we are looking for analysis and interpretation, not judgement or derision.  

Papers must be typed, double-spaced, with in-text citations and Works Cited page in MLA style (a handout on proper formatting is located on Brightspace in the "Writing Toolkit"). This is NOT a research paper, so please do not do your own outside research for this assignment; however, you are welcome to reference the other sources we have read in this course. Make sure to cite any and all sources that you use. Please review the University's policy on plagiarism and act accordingly. As the syllabus states, ignorance will not be considered an excuse for violations.

You have a total of 4 "grace days" for the semester that you may use as you wish to extend the deadline of your paper, without contacting the instructor. Please keep track of your grace days. Once these grace days have been used, your paper will be considered late. Grades for late papers will be reduced by 2% for every calendar day it is late, including weekends. Late papers will not be accepted beyond two weeks of the initial due date, regardless of grace days. Late work will be accepted without penalty only in cases of true emergency or by prior arrangement with the instructor.